Questions-réponses.

1 – Artificial Intelligence - From information to disinformation :

A chip : In computing, a chip is a miniaturized electronic component that performs logical, storage, or data processing functions, and forms the core of processors, memory modules, graphics cards, etc...

A data center is a physical facility housing a large number of servers, storage systems, and network equipment, designed to host, process, and distribute data and IT services.
Text.

ChatGPT : This AI belongs to OpenAI, an American company specializing in artificial intelligence, founded in 2015. Although Microsoft is OpenAI’s main investor, it does not own ChatGPT.

Neural network :A neural network is a computational model inspired by the functioning of the human brain. It consists of artificial neurons organized into layers that follow one another in the workflow:
An input layer that receives raw data (e.g., pixels, text)
Hidden layers that perform nonlinear transformations and learn intermediate representations
An output layer that produces the final prediction or classification
The network learns by optimizing its weights using a learning algorithm (often backpropagation) to minimize the error between its predictions and the expected responses.

Diffusion MRI is a magnetic resonance imaging technique used to study the diffusion of water molecules in tissues, particularly to analyze the microstructure of the brain’s white matter and its connectivity.
In an anisotropic medium (e.g., nerve or tendon fibers), diffusion occurs preferentially along the direction of the fiber.
https://hal.science/hal-00495649/document
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRM_de_diffusion

An isotropic medium is a medium whose properties are identical regardless of the direction of observation, such as liquids or amorphous solids.
An anisotropic medium is a medium whose physical properties, such as birefringence, vary depending on the direction considered.
https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/anisotrope
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropie

Open-weight model : This is an AI system whose trained parameters are publicly accessible, allowing developers to analyze and refine them for specific tasks without requiring the original training data.
Advantage : Accelerates the reproducibility of scientific work and promotes collaborative innovation.
Disadvantage : Malicious use. The availability of weights facilitates the creation of unethical applications (misinformation, phishing, etc.).

Neural network weights : These are the numerical values associated with the connections between neurons.
https://physique.cmaisonneuve.qc.ca/svezina/mat/note_mat/MAT_Chap%206.2.pdf

OpenAI : was founded in 2015 by Sam Altman, Elon Musk, Ilya Sutskever, and Greg Brockman, with the goal of developing safe, accessible artificial general intelligence (AGI).
OpenAI was established as a nonprofit organization on December 11, 2015,
In March 2019, the organization became a capped-profit company to attract capital. The goal of this new status is to allow investors to receive a portion of the company’s profits up to a maximum of 100 times their initial investment.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAI

GPT-1 was released in 2018 and had 117 million parameters at the time. Although it was very limited, it served as a proof of concept, demonstrating that a pre-trained language model could generate coherent text.
GPT-2, released in 2019, with 1.5 billion parameters. The model was so good that OpenAI hesitated to release it, fearing malicious use (text-based deepfakes, fake news, etc.).
GPT-3, released in 2020, with 175 billion parameters. This is when the world began to realize the potential of AI, which was now capable of responding, writing, and conversing with disconcerting naturalness.
https://www.jedha.co/formation-ia/qui-a-cree-chatgpt-openai-sam-altman

Generative AI : Generative artificial intelligence is a machine learning model capable of creating original content (text, images, audio, code, etc.) based on training data. It learns the structures, styles, and relationships present in the data, and then generates new data, without limiting itself to exactly replicating the examples it has previously examined.
https://www.francenum.gouv.fr/files/2024-11/FicheIA_1_A_quoi_ca_sert.pdf

Psyche : In psychology, the psyche refers to the set of conscious and unconscious processes unique to each individual; it is synonymous with mental activity.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psych%C3%A9_(mythologie)

Conversational AI refers to computer systems capable of interacting with users in a natural way, often via text or voice. These systems use technologies such as natural language processing (NLP) to understand and respond to user queries. Common applications include chatbots, virtual assistants (such as Siri, Alexa, or Qwant’s AI assistant), and automated customer service systems. These technologies are used to enhance the user experience by providing quick and personalized responses. Conversational AI enables machines to interact naturally with humans through question-and-answer exchanges, such as chatbots or virtual assistants, while generative AI creates original content that is sometimes creative but also unpredictable.

Anthropomorphism is the process of attributing human characteristics to non-human entities, such as animals, objects, or concepts.
https://www.lalanguefrancaise.com/dictionnaire/definition/anthropomorphisation

MIT : The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is both a university and an American research institute specializing in science and technology. It is considered one of the best universities in the world.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology

Human-machine interface : A human-machine interface (HMI) is the set of hardware and software devices that allow a human user to interact with a machine. Example: An embedded computer system receives information from the real world via sensors. It stores and processes this information using a microprocessor, then sends information back to the real world via actuators.
https://www.maxicours.com/se/cours/les-interfaces-homme-machine/

Confirmation bias : Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that leads us to favor information that confirms our existing beliefs while ignoring or downplaying information that contradicts them.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biais_de_confirmation

Automation Bias is the tendency to favor the recommendations of automated decision-support systems while ignoring contradictory information from an external source—even if it is correct—due to excessive trust in these systems.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biais_d%27automatisation

Need for belonging : The need for belonging is an intrinsic motivation to affiliate with others and be socially accepted, influencing behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes to conform to group norms.
https://shs.cairn.info/revue-l-annee-psychologique1-2012-1-page-85?lang=fr
https://www.psychologue.net/articles/la-pyramide-de-maslow-la-theorie-des-besoins

Their suicides have moved America. That of Sewell Setzer, a 14-year-old Florida resident, who had developed a relationship that was both friendly and romantic with “Dany,” his chatbot developed by Character. AI, and shot himself in the head on February 28, 2024.
Another tragedy is that of Adam Raine, a 16-year-old from California, who committed suicide on April 11, 2025, after more than six months of exchanges with ChatGPT. The chatbot reportedly gave him advice on how to kill himself and write his suicide note.
https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2025/10/14/face-aux-derives-des-chatbots-l-etat-de-californie-adopte-une-loi-pour-proteger-les-mineurs-de-l-intelligence-artificielle_6646333_3234.html

The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has launched an investigation into chatbots used as generative AI companions that provide psychological counseling, such as ChatGPT and Grok. The FTC has sent a request for information to seven companies offering chatbots accessible to the general public: OpenAI, Alphabet, Character.AI, Instagram, Meta, Snap, and xAI.
https://www.bfmtv.com/tech/intelligence-artificielle/chat-gpt-character-ai-la-ftc-ouvre-une-enquete-sur-les-chatbots-utilises-comme-confidents-et-compagnons-par-les-enfants_AD-202509120397.html

See also :
AI and lies :
https://www.science-et-vie.com/cerveau-et-intelligence/intelligence-artificielle/on-y-est-ia-peut-desormais-mentir-strategiquement-aux-humains-sommes-nous-en-danger-198175.html

IA Grok :
https://www.science-et-vie.com/technos-et-futur/les-utilisateurs-sont-choques-la-nouvelle-ia-delon-musk-donne-des-plans-detailles-pour-une-attaque-chimique-massive-192466.html

Identity : The development of identity in children occurs in three stages: the construction of body image (ages 3–6), the construction of social identity (ages 6–11), and the construction of adult gender identity (ages 11–16).
https://www.univ-paris8.fr/CoPsyEnfant-La-constructtion-de-l-identite-aujourd-hui-Construction-psychique

According to Locke, personal identity is linked to memory, understood as the ability to reflect on our past actions and experiences. It explains how a person who is constantly changing remains the same.
John Locke, *An Essay Concerning Human Understanding*, 1689, trans. P. Coste.
https://www.lelivrescolaire.fr/page/10843042
See also : Differentiation and self-awareness.

Model : A model is a simplified and abstract representation of a system, phenomenon, or complex reality, enabling the understanding, analysis, and prediction of behaviors and performance.

Correlation : (CNTRL) A relationship between two things, two concepts, or two facts, where one implies the other and vice versa.
A measure of the degree of association between phenomena described by statistical series.

l'Assiette au beurre is a French satirical illustrated magazine published from 1901 to 1936.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Assiette_au_beurre

Author’s note : It should be noted that the subjects tested in this experiment were not active on social media, whereas AI draws much of its information from these platforms. One can therefore imagine that a comparative study between AI and social media users would have yielded identical results.

Gregory IX : Pope Gregory IX (1145–1241) is best known for promulgating the Decretals and establishing the Papal Inquisition in response to the failures of previous episcopal inquisitions.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A9goire_IX

- Inquisition : The Inquisition was a judicial institution of the Catholic Church established to combat heresy and investigate beliefs or practices deviating from official dogma, evolving in different forms depending on the era and region.
https://sapere.page/religion-inquisition/
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition

- Secular countries around the world :
Brazil has been the first secular country since 1891, followed by France, which enshrined this principle in its Constitution in 1905.
Other countries such as Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, India, Japan, Portugal, Turkey, Hungary, Latvia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Denmark, Nigeria, Niger, and Tunisia also apply the separation of religion and state.

- In France :
1. The First Separation (French Revolution)
- 1794: The National Convention adopts the decree of 2 Sansculottides Year II (September 18, 1794), which abolishes the budget of the Constitutional Church.
- 1795: The decree of 3 Ventôse Year III (February 21, 1795) proclaims freedom of worship and specifies that “the Republic shall not subsidize any religion” 
- This initial separation was, however, interrupted by the Concordat of 1801, signed by Napoleon Bonaparte, which reestablished relations between the State and the Holy See.

2. The 1905 Law – the cornerstone of secularism
- December 9, 1905: The law separating Church and State was enacted, at the initiative of the Socialist Republican deputy Aristide Briand.
- It prohibits the State from recognizing, funding, or subsidizing any religion, while guaranteeing freedom of conscience and the free practice of religion.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loi_du_9_d%C3%A9cembre_1905_concernant_la_s%C3%A9paration_des_%C3%89glises_et_de_l%27%C3%89tat
https://www.interieur.gouv.fr/actualites/actualites-du-ministere/loi-de-1905-pierre-angulaire-de-laicite-en-france

Abou Bakr al-Baghdadi, leader of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), announced the restoration of the caliphate on June 29, 2014, from the Great Mosque of Mosul, proclaiming himself caliph and leader of Muslims worldwide.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abou_Bakr_al-Baghdadi

A caliphate or khalifat refers both to the territory and the Muslim population living there, recognizing the authority of a caliph (literally “a successor”) in the political exercise of power.
This term also refers to the political system itself and the period during which it is in effect.
Several caliphates have existed since the founding of Islam, following the struggles waged by various claimants to the title of successor to the Prophet.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat

On 29 June 2014, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi proclaimed the restoration of the caliphate from the mosque in Mosul, marking the beginning of the IS caliphate following the capture of the city and other territories in Iraq and Syria.
https://shs.cairn.info/revue-outre-terre2-2015-3-page-149?lang=fr
https://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2014/06/29/l-eiil-proclame-l-etablissement-d-un-califat-islamique-et-change-de-nom_4447568_3218.html
https://www.scienceshumaines.com/les-pouvoirs-du-calife-mythe-ou-realite_fr_37317.html

The end of the Islamic State’s caliphate was declared in March 2019 following the fall of Baghuz, marking the end of the organisation’s territorial control in Iraq and Syria.

Monocracy A monocracy is a political system in which executive power is concentrated in the hands of a single individual, such as a leader, a king, a president or a spiritual authority.
Whilst a president is a political leader with executive and legislative power within their country, the spiritual leader of a religion wields influence on an international scale.

This system of government is currently found at the helm of both authoritarian and democratic states, with religion invariably being used to justify abuses of power.
Generally speaking, those in power demonstrate their expansionism through both verbal violence and outright aggression. They always justify their contempt for human beings under the guise of divine authority borrowed from the three monotheistic religions: YHWH, God or Allah. Buddhism is no exception to these mechanisms of intolerance and the seizure of power.
The autocrat loves :
- money,
- power,
- flattery,
- he relies on religion to justify his actions and commands,
- anyone who does not think like him is an enemy,
- corruption and lies are part of his modus operandi.

The Bible as a legitimisation of force.

Signs of wealth erased.

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Commercial information : Here, we distinguish between ‘commercial information’ and ‘advertising campaigns’, which was essentially intended to inform and attract the buyer’s attention. Publicity has become a communication strategy aimed at appealing to a target audience to promote a product, service or brand; it uses various means such as advertising campaigns, adverts or brand imagery.
https://www.dictionnaire-academie.fr/article/A9P4991
https://madparis.fr/chronologie

Elective monarchy : An elective monarchy is a type of constitutional monarchy in which the monarch ascends to the throne through election rather than by hereditary succession.

Today, the following are the world’s elective monarchies:
- The United Arab Emirates, where the king is elected by the seven emirs of the Supreme Council
- Malaysia, where the king is elected by the nine sultans of the Malaysian states
- Cambodia, where the king is elected by the Council of the Throne from among members of the Norodom, Sisowat or Ang Duong families.
- The Holy See, considered an elective monarchy as the Pope is elected for life by the College of Cardinals.
- Samoa, where the Head of State is elected by the Fono (Parliament) for a five-year term.
- The Order of Malta also has the status of an elective monarchy, as its Prince and Grand Master is elected for life.
- The Co-Principality of Andorra may be considered a semi-elective monarchy, as one of the two princes is the President of the French Republic, who is elected by the French people.
https://fr-academic.com/dic.nsf/frwiki/1179369

The Roman Republic :
Although traces of settlement date back to 10,000 BC, according to tradition, Rome was founded by Romulus in 753 BC. Rome was then an elective monarchy in which the king held full powers. The Roman Republic was established in 509 BC when the inhabitants of Rome overthrew their last king, Tarquinius Superbus, accused of tyranny and abuse of power.
Power was henceforth shared between:
- The Magistrates (the monarchical element), elected for one year, who held executive power.
- The Senate (the aristocratic branch), comprising around 300 former magistrates. It ratifies decisions and ensures the continuity of the state during changes in magistrates. Its opinions almost always guide the decisions of the magistrates and the assemblies.
- The People’s Assemblies (democratic element), which pass laws and elect magistrates.
In the event of a serious crisis, the Republic provides for the appointment of a dictator who assumes all powers for a maximum period of six months.
https://reviserhistoire.fr/republique-romaine/

Advertising campaigns  : The term ‘advertising campaign’ refers to any form of communication carried out within the context of a commercial, industrial, craft or professional activity with the aim of promoting the supply of goods or services, including immovable property, rights and obligations.
In marketing terminology, it is defined as the totality of means employed to raise awareness of a product, a brand or a company amongst a target audience, with the aim of encouraging the purchase or use of a service.
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicit%C3%A9.

Social media : Social media is the result of a gradual evolution in online communication technologies,
- From 1978 onwards, BBS (Bulletin Board Systems) enabled users to connect and exchange messages, files and information. They are regarded as the precursors of modern social media. 
- The rise of forums and discussion networks took place in the 1980s and 1990s
- SixDegrees.com: created in 1997, it is considered the first modern social network
- From the 2000s onwards, communication platforms have continued to gain ground with:
2002 Friendster, LinkedIn First modern social networks
2003 MySpace Mainstream social network
2004 Facebook Universal social network
2010 Instagram Mobile visual platform
2011 Snapchat Ephemeral messages
2016–2018 TikTok Short videos
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_social_(Internet)

Hippie movement : The hippie movement emerged in the 1960s in the United States, before spreading to the rest of the Western world. It developed among the baby-boom generation, who rejected the bourgeois values and consumer society of their parents.
The movement centred on psychedelic music, the search for new forms of communal living and the experimentation with hallucinogenic substances. It was also influenced by the Vietnam War, which led the hippies to adopt the slogan « make love, not war ».
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippie

Qwant :
Qwant is a French search engine created by Jean-Manuel Rozan, Éric Léandri and Patrick Constant.

The company was founded on 25 May 2011 in Nice by these three partners, with the support of Patrick Constant’s company Pertimm, which had already developed search engines for the retail sector.
The project was initially developed over a two-year period, then launched in beta in 15 countries and 35 languages on 16 February 20131.
The final version went live on 4 July 2013 in France, following a year and a half of research and development.

Name and concept :
The name Qwant is a combination of the letter Q (for ‘Quantities’, evoking the vast amount of data that the web crawler processes every day) and the English word ‘want’ (meaning ‘to desire’ or ‘to seek’).
The search engine aims to be neutral and privacy-friendly: it does not track users, does not sell their data and does not target adverts based on search history.
Development and partnerships :
In June 2014, the German group Axel Springer invested 20% of the capital to develop a web crawler specialising in French news.
In December 2014, Qwant launched Qwant Junior, a search engine designed for children aged 3 to 12, and began trials in several French schools in partnership with the French Ministry of Education.
In February 2017, the company raised €18.5 million, of which €15 million came from the Caisse des dépôts et consignations and the remainder from Axel Springer.

Summary :
Dates Events :
- 25 May 2011 Founded in Nice by Jean-Manuel Rozan, Éric Léandri and Patrick Constant
- 16 February 2013 Launch of the beta version (15 countries, 35 languages)
- 4 July 2013 Final version available in France
- June 2014 Investment by Axel Springer (20%)
- December 2014 Launch of Qwant Junior
- February 2017 Fundraising of €18.5 million
Thus, Qwant was born out of a desire to offer a French alternative to Google, founded by three French entrepreneurs in 2011, and saw its search engine enter the global market in 2013.


Vera : is an artificial intelligence tool designed to verify facts and potentially misleading information. The service is free and does not require users to create an account. Once a question is asked, the AI provides a clear, well-sourced answer.
The Paris Academic CLEMI (Centre for the Coordination of Education and the News Media) has tested this tool and was particularly impressed by the quality of its responses. Not only does the AI demonstrate tolerance towards religious beliefs, but it also stands out for its kindness, never adopting a condescending tone. On the contrary, its answers often begin with ‘That’s a good question’, thereby acknowledging the legitimacy of the query and encouraging the user to continue their reflection.
Vera is an initiative by LaReponse. Tech, an NGO bringing together digital experts involved in projects with a social impact. The organisation develops innovative technological solutions to address crucial issues such as combating disinformation and protecting public debate.
https://pia.ac-paris.fr/portail/jcms/p2_4630140/vera-le-numero-pour-verifier-les-faits